A gendered analysis of trends in the faith‐based provision of social services: Evidence from Egypt and Turkey

The involvement of faith-based organizations in the provision social welfare has been popular discourse and policy over last several decades. This is often recommended as a remedy to underfunded underdeveloped system late industrializing countries. paper aims discuss implications this on women MENA region. question significant because region need services they have lowest labor market participation world disproportionately affected by poverty decade, trend exacerbated during COVID-19 pandemic. Based fieldwork utilizing both qualitative quantitative sources, discusses evidence from two country cases region, Egypt Turkey. argues that falls short providing substitute or alternative publicly funded universally provided for these inconsistent unreliable could be coopted government. represents case which al-Sisi regime adopted confrontational strategy toward Muslim Brotherhood dismembered its services, while Turkey government coopts political gain. 过去几十年，宗教组织参与提供社会福利一事普遍存在于话语和政策中。这项政策经常被推荐为较晚工业化国家中资金不足与不发达的社会福利体系的补救措施。本文旨在探讨这项推荐政策对中东和北非地区妇女的影响。这个问题很重要，因为中东和北非地区的妇女需要社会服务，她们的劳动力市场参与度是全球最低的，并且在过去十年中遭受了严重的贫困影响，这一趋势在COVID-19大流行期间有所恶化。基于实地调查并利用定性和定量来源，本文探讨了来自埃及和土耳其这两个国家案例的证据。本文认为，宗教组织提供的社会福利不足以替代以妇女为对象的公共资助及普遍提供的社会服务，因为宗教组织的社会福利提供并不持续且不可靠，还可能会被政府利用。埃及案例中，塞西政权对穆斯林兄弟会采取对抗战略并分割了后者提供的服务，而土耳其案例中，政府拉拢宗教组织以获取政治利益。 La participación de organizaciones basadas en la fe provisión bienestar ha sido el discurso y política durante las últimas décadas. Esta menudo se recomienda como un remedio para sistema subdesarrollado con fondos insuficientes los países industrialización tardía. Este documento tiene objetivo discutir implicaciones esta recomendada sobre mujeres región MENA. pregunta es importante porque necesitan servicios sociales, ya que tienen mercado laboral más baja del mundo han visto afectadas manera desproporcionada por pobreza última década, una tendencia exacerbada pandemia COVID-19. Basado trabajo campo utilizando fuentes tanto cualitativas cuantitativas, este analiza evidencia dos casos MENA, Egipto Turquía. El argumenta parte religiosas queda corta hora proporcionar sustituto o alternativa sociales financiados públicos provistos universalmente estos inconsistente poco confiable podría ser cooptada Gobierno. representa caso régimen Al-Sisi adoptó estrategia confrontación hacia Hermandad Musulmana desmembró sus servicios, mientras Turquía gobierno coopta obtener beneficios políticos. Faith-based skyrocketed decades Middle East North Africa (MENA) it all world. civil society general, groups, particular, long advocated international development agencies well Western governments. Proponents welcome wide variety groups provide ranging education healthcare arguing are crucial poor play key role alleviation, critics interest maintaining traditional hierarchies. Much less attention given their women. will explore following reasons. First, except handful oil-producing countries Gulf, insufficient, underfunded, underdeveloped, at best, non-existent, worst. gap between needs masses existing public filled organizations, many faith-based. incredibly diverse. There numerous represent various religions, sects denominations, making an example par excellence when comes studying organizations. Second, gender-based analysis also women's socioeconomic vulnerability due low female employment rates high Although too early demonstrate empirical terms through data some cases, reasonable expect trends become more pronounced objectives. origins recent even though predates modern state. evolution went hand with developments, particularly United Kingdom States, rest describes demonstrating significance provision. Third, drawing examples Turkey, how cannot reliable, well-funded, system. Two discussed substantiate argument. As first example, largest Islamist group, (Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimin-MB), supplemented decades, were new under President Abdel Fatah battle group. second demonstrates co-opted build clientelist networks placing them government's thumb. relies sources makes use primary secondary materials Arabic, Turkish English. Some collected Cairo Ankara month June 2022. included newspaper searches visits libraries gather documents. In Egypt, I communicated visited National Council Women (al-Majlis al-Qawmi lil-Marra). Egyptian newspapers Al-Ahram (Arabic), Al-Masr Al-Youm Daily News (English), Weekly (English) scanned. Yeni Şafak (Turkish) Cumhuriyet (Turkish). Library Public Administration Institute (Türkiye ve Ortadoğu Amme İdaresi Kütüphanesi) Ankara. Secondary include statistics, articles, books. based Household Budget Survey (Hane Halkı Bütçe Anketi), contains micro-level half million people, covering years 2003 2016. gathered annual surveys Statistical (Türk İstatistik Enstitüsü—TÜİK). It important note although calculation institute might biased pressure Therefore, calculations, such employment, unemployment, so on, conducted author using microdata. Additional statistics International Labor Organization (ILO) incorporated. Translation documents Arabic was completed author. For case, indirect no exist concerning MB's benefited them, lack et cetera. examination status. used highlight fact lower status depend well-being. general. direct, coming household budget demonstrated prioritized transfers private parties—which overwhelmingly however, survey questions TUIK did not other questions, assistance spent. study methodology (Yin, 2017) utilizes inductive reasoning (Yom, 2015). adopts gender lenses normative commitment equity. phenomenon hand, is, Easy access major reason behind selection. complexity terminology nongovernmental here. heterogenous (Haugen, 2019). strongly endorsed financial agencies, Nations Development Program (UNDP), World Bank (WB), Monetary Fund (IMF), States Agency (USAID), who, large extent, reflect interests powerful wealthy governments West. These part international, national, local charities. Their donors quite tied missionary operating developing world, others illegal so-called Islamic State, deemed dangerous radical What more, sponsored branches, sensitivities concerns They directly related religious institutions congregations, mosques, Jewish synagogues, Hindu missions, Christian churches. sum, category heterogeneous highly complex. study, refer those who involved humanitarian motivated values. selected disappear overnight relations turn confrontational. point state Anwar Sadat (1970–1981) allowed MB rebuilt—after being confiscated Gamal Nasser (1954–1970)—because infitah (open-door; Brooke, 2019; Ranko, With economic policy, hoped attract foreign investors, increase growth rates, expand economy, meet demands fast-growing population. Allowing rebuilt looked like good reduce expenditures time. began era, main took place Hosni Mubarak (1981–2011). structural adjustment programs (SAPs) IMF, 1986, placed constraints expenditures. Both charity time fill left services. strongest group advantage window opportunity significantly expanded presence Atia (2013) writes, “[a] shift scale responsibility away individuals (or responsibilization) occurred tandem third/voluntary sector” (p. xxii). Thus, way widespread health clinics, schools, Quran courses childcare alleviation (Atia, 2013; Clark, 2004; Harb, 2008; developments 2011 uprising witnessed rise unprecedented way. Its party, Freedom Justice Party (Hizb al-Hurriya wa al-Adala), became party parliament winning about 47% votes 2011–2012 parliamentary elections. Furthermore, candidate, Muhammed Morsi, elected presidential elections post-Mubarak era. below detail, after Fattah president 2014, led demise period finally resulting court order declared terrorist organization, stopping activities including only experienced confrontation dismantled Similar processes Algeria grown considerably JDP (Adalet Kalkınma Partisi-JDP) rule. departure previous period, referred “February 28th era,” legal administrative measures taken against Islamism release memo State Security 1997. founded out ashes movement, had gained considerable popularity politics since 1980s informal much better efficiently than secular counterparts. gendered studied detail (Arat, 2005; White, 2002). White details patronage formed neighborhoods Istanbul. built branches Welfare (1983–1998) pursued similar branches. Çavdar (2022) seemingly apolitical into machines needed, mobilizing millions came power 2002, encouraged incorporated discussion findings microdata exponentially Just prioritize housewives powerhouse (Çavdar, 2022), show target housewives. words, ruling coordinating distribution according goals. Like where neoliberal policies, JDP's rule, same time, marked consolidation neoliberalism (Adaman al., 2017; Buğra & Savaşkan, 2014), therefore shows congruence conservatism global (Çavdar Yasar, Coşar Yeğenoğlu, 2011). reforms institutionalized accompanied conservatism, share assumptions Yaşar (2019) call “silent consensus.” Accordingly, emerging re-envisioning mothers wives: pious, segregated, family centered, dependents, volunteers. Hintz (2018) ties what she calls “Ottoman identity,” which, argues, promotes cultures, TV series cooking (pp. 50–53, 160). Since beginning 21st century, concept entered field established itself paradigmatic concept. defined differently right, “multinational environmentalists, feminists, neoliberals, democratic, grassroots activists” (Howell Pearce, 2001; p. 1), conservative interpretation dominant Howell Pearce “the Americanization debate.” means scholarly debates assumed facilitate democracy development. “Americanization” debate inherently 1970s industrialized North, especially Kingdom. ideology known neoliberalism, emphasis individual freedom antistate bias (Harvey, 2005), gaining further promoted policies Margaret Thatcher Ronald Reagan, whom identified problem, solution. championed freedom, negative alone, attacked model ultimate constraint (Belland Waddan, 2007). Thanks seeds worldview leaders planted mobilization American Evangelicals, characteristic paradigm—the promotion society—continued grow flourish. A number legislative acts played roles politics; 1996 Reform Act's “Charitable Choice” Bill Clinton's presidency marks ideological instance (Boddie Cnaan, 2012; Clarke, 2006; Cnaan Boddie, 2002; Pipes Ebaugh, section act encourages states work federally act, therefore, opened door range food, work, community domestic violence counseling, medical maternity homes (Cnaan pp. 224–225). law but “encouraged larger services” 225). Later, George W. Bush vocal advocate greater soon he office 2001. year, Faith-Based Community Initiatives Act his conviction should top priority (Schuerger, Additionally, created centers five federal agencies. Schuerger (2002) points out, executive actions designed protect beneficiaries receiving funds. retain icons symbols facilities generally prohibited decisions grounds, funds 2). On British front, Tony Blair's interfaith charitable foundation 2008 another point. legislations helped agenda developed worlds. changes advanced capitalist gradually spread UN, response levels poor. instance, UN joined fray promoting non-state actors 2000 Millennium Declaration General Assembly, Developments Goals closely paradigm connecting faith well. Major initiates 2000s contributed general emphasizing process Executive Order 13280 December 2002 Center (USAID). USAID “Participation Religious Orders programs” 2004 role. parallel fronts, academic studies pay conceptualize One earliest body literature published Politics 1980. Wilber Jameson (1980) reevaluation relationship religion, “a view sees religion factor moral base consequently limit likely fruitful intertwine” 467). Those argue inclusion conceptualization begin critique modernization theory expectations would decline societies modernize. Jennings Clarke (2008) Clark go write exclusion Eurocentric “focused almost entirely experience Christianity western Europe” 263). Carbonnier writes “those predicting death proved dramatically wrong (1) “has shown great resilience, evidenced revivals across globe, Americas, Eastern (Carbonnier, (2006) “faith matters” deliver service material needed nonmaterial help. Others can challenging gender, class, racial inequities. Para-Mallam (2007) Nigerian male holistic Haddad (2003) marginalized form solidarity, most connections. Indiana Littlefield (2010) finds African correcting inequities job training, business assistance, credit repair, classes, counseling. Newman U.S. turned “safety net” poor, communities ones actively serve populations. Studies emerged highlighting Latin America (Mourier, 2013) Newman, 2010; Levin, 2016) Europe (Manuel Glatzer, Zehavi, 2012) Jawad, 2009a, 2009b; Wictorowicz, 2004). dominated exponential (Benthall Bellion-Jourdan, 2003). Many rentier, universal crisis thanks implementation (Karshenas 2014). rising within populations While bourgeoning throughout maintained little legislature, dominance undeniable. true countries, Algeria, Morocco Lebanon, Occupied Territories Palestine, Jordan, scholars argued Islam well-suited unique practices, zakat, fitr, sadaqah, institution called waqf constitute foundations rights-based originated West (Ahmed, Ali Modeer, 2018; Raimi level enthusiasm provision, Human Report notes “new contract” 66). report adds one third operate faith-based, conditional unconditional cash transfers, national donation programs, education, vocational health, small medium enterprise, agriculture, water sanitation, housing area (UNDP, 2008, 26–29). Despite there consensus among (Belcher Deforge, 2007; Gibelman Gelman, aforementioned studies, critical addressing potential actual Feminist raised points. Pearson Tomalin (2008), warn tend marginalize essentialize roles, mostly describing wives 50). seem help women, remind us, never division leaves underpaid undervalued invisible outside home 51). Regardless origin, silence voices reinforce patriarchal structures 47). Scholars challenge Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (2015) do support colonial projects violate human rights. her meticulous Rural Rajasthan, India, Bradley (2011) central lives Yet, teachings continue exclude decision-making make vulnerable violence. Similarly, Atalay promote worldviews Also, Ghodsee Bulgaria hide views disguise liberal justify oppressive practices “right choose.” builds expands locating broader context roles. Specifically, contributions literature. tracing orig